Summary

Arkansas is located in the Southern region of the USA with Little Rock as its capital. Doug Ducey (R) is Governor. Secretary of State is Kattie Hobbs (R), and Attorney General, Mark Brnovich (R).

The Arkansas legislature i.e. General Assembly of Arkansas  was founded in 1836.  The legislature is a bicameral body composed of the upper house Arkansas Senate with 35 members, and the lower Arkansas House of Representatives with 100 members. All 135 representatives and state senators represent an equal number of constituent districts. The General Assembly convenes on the second Monday of every other year. A session lasts for 60 days unless the legislature votes to extend it. The Governor of Arkansas can issue a “call” for a special session during the interims between regular sessions. The General Assembly meets at the Arkansas State Capitol in Little Rock.

OnAir Post: Arkansas onAir

News

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Latest Arkansas onAir News

The base content in each post in this Arkansas onAir Hub has been updated as of 12/20/23. In addition to the eight posts on the home page, in depth posts on each US House member and posts on Arkansas government and elections have been started. These posts have been shared with the US onAir Hub and will updated in the US onAir automatically when they are updated in this hub.

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About

The Arkansas onAir Hub supports Arkansans to become more informed about and engaged in local, state, and federal politics while facilitating more civil and positive discussions with their representatives, candidates, and fellow citizens.

  • Arkansas onAir is one of 50 state governance and elections hubs that the US onAir Network is providing to help reinvigorate US democracy.  This post has short summaries of current state and federal representatives with links to their complete Hub posts.  Students curate post content from government, campaign, social media, and public websites.  Key content on the Alabama Hub is also replicated on the US onAir nations Hub at: us.onair.cc.
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Web Links

State Representatives

Governor Sarah Huckabee Sanders

Current Position: Governor from 2023
Affiliation: Republican

Sarah Elizabeth Huckabee Sanders was the 31st White House press secretary, serving under President Donald Trump from 2017 to 2019.

She was the third woman to serve in that position. Sanders previously worked on the election campaigns of her father, Arkansas governor and presidential candidate Mike Huckabee, and later served as a senior advisor on Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign. Sanders is the Republican nominee in the 2022 Arkansas gubernatorial election.

She is the first woman to hold the office, the first woman to be governor of a state of which her father was also governor, and the youngest current governor.

OnAir Post: Sarah Huckabee Sanders – AR

US Representatives

Senator John Boozman

John BoozmanCurrent Position: US Senator since 2011
Affiliation: Republican
Former Positions: US Representative from 2001 – 2011; Optometrist

Featured Quote: 
The @TaxFoundation
found Democrats’ reckless tax and spending spree would result in Arkansans paying, on average, $745 more in taxes within 5 years. READ my latest weekly column on how we’re all paying the price for it through higher taxes and inflation.

John Boozman co-founded a private optometry clinic in 1977 and worked as a volunteer optometrist for low-income families.

OnAir Post: John Boozman – AR

Senator Tom Cotton

Tom Cotton 1Current Position: US Senator since 2017
Affiliation: Republican
Former Position: US Representative

Featured Quote: 
The Democrats’ reckless tax and spending scheme was bad enough, but now they want to include amnesty for millions of illegal aliens.

On January 11, 2005, Cotton enlisted in the United States Army. Following his active duty service, Cotton went to work for management consulting firm McKinsey & Company before running for Congress

OnAir Post: Tom Cotton – AR

Rick Crawford AR-01

Current Position: US Representative of AR 1st District since 2011
Affiliation: Republican
Former Position: Radio announcer, businessman, and U.S. Army soldier. from 1985 – 2011
Other positions: Member of the Counterterrorism, Counterintelligence, and Counterproliferation Subcommittee
District: Eeastern Arkansas
Upcoming Election:

Featured Quote: 
House Democrats are now defending/considering “art” as “infrastructure” because they want the U.S. to emulate Soviet-style infrastructure? Absolute nonsense… American tax payers won’t go along with this, either.

OnAir Post: Rick Crawford AR-01

French Hill AR-02

French Hill 1Current Position: US Representative of AR 2nd District since 2015
Affiliation: Republican
District:    includes the state capital of Little Rock, its suburbs, and surrounding areas.
Upcoming Election:

Featured Quote: 
As a longtime advocate for religious freedom, I appreciate @POTUS
prioritizing our call to action to fill the important role of Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious Freedom.

OnAir Post: French Hill AR-02

Steve Womack AR-03

Steve Womack 1Current Position: US Representative of AR 3rd District since 2011
Affiliation: Republican
Former Position: Mayor of Rogers from 2008 – 2011
District:   Northwest Arkansas and takes in Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Springdale, and Bentonville.
Upcoming Election:

Featured Quote: 
Our national parks are iconic treasures. The #VIPAct grants active-duty personnel, veterans, and Gold Star families lifetime access to these lands and monuments. I proudly cosponsored and helped pass this small token of appreciation for our heroes.

OnAir Post: Steve Womack AR-03

Bruce Westerman AR-04

Bruce Westerman 1Current Position: US Representative of AR 4th District since 2015
Affiliation: Republican
Former Position: State Delegate from 2011 – 2015
District:   southwestern portion of the U.S. state of Arkansas. Notable towns in the district include Camden, Hope, Hot Springs, Magnolia, Pine Bluff, and Texarkana.
Upcoming Election:

Featured Quote: 
I recently signed a letter by @RepMcCaul to @POTUS asking for his continued support for Israel and action to cut off Iranian support to Palestinian terrorists. As the only true democracy in the Middle East, Israel is vital to the region’s stability and our national security.

OnAir Post: Bruce Westerman AR-04

Wikipedia

Wikipedia


United States presidential election results for Arkansas[1]
YearRepublican / WhigDemocraticThird party(ies)
No. %No. %No. %
2020760,64762.40%423,93234.78%34,4902.83%
2016684,87260.57%380,49433.65%65,3105.78%
2012647,74460.57%394,40936.88%27,3152.55%
2008638,01758.72%422,31038.86%26,2902.42%
2004572,89854.31%469,95344.55%12,0941.15%
2000472,94051.31%422,76845.86%26,0732.83%
1996325,41636.80%475,17153.74%83,6759.46%
1992337,32435.48%505,82353.21%107,50611.31%
1988466,57856.37%349,23742.19%11,9231.44%
1984534,77460.47%338,64638.29%10,9861.24%
1980403,16448.13%398,04147.52%36,3774.34%
1976268,75334.93%499,61464.94%1,0290.13%
1972445,75168.82%198,89930.71%3,0160.47%
1968189,06231.01%184,90130.33%235,62738.65%
1964243,26443.41%314,19756.06%2,9650.53%
1960184,50843.06%215,04950.19%28,9526.76%
1956186,28745.82%213,27752.46%7,0081.72%
1952177,15543.76%226,30055.90%1,3450.33%
194850,95921.02%149,65961.72%41,85717.26%
194463,55129.84%148,96569.95%4380.21%
194042,12120.98%158,62279.02%00.00%
193632,03917.86%146,76581.80%6190.34%
193228,46712.91%189,60285.96%2,4931.13%
192877,75139.33%119,19660.29%7460.38%
192440,56429.28%84,79561.21%13,1739.51%
192071,11738.73%107,40958.49%5,1112.78%
191648,87928.73%112,21165.97%9,0145.30%
191225,58520.45%68,81455.01%30,70524.54%
190856,62437.30%87,01557.31%8,1835.39%
190446,86040.25%64,43455.35%5,1274.40%
190044,80035.04%81,14263.46%1,9241.50%
189637,51225.12%110,10373.72%1,7321.16%
189247,07231.78%87,83459.30%13,2118.92%
188859,75238.04%86,06254.80%11,2447.16%
188451,19840.70%72,73457.83%1,8471.47%
188041,66138.66%60,48956.13%5,6225.22%
187638,64939.87%58,08659.92%2110.22%
187241,37352.17%37,92747.83%00.00%
186822,11253.68%19,07846.32%00.00%
186000.00%5,3579.89%48,79590.11%
185600.00%21,91067.12%10,73232.88%
18527,40437.82%12,17362.18%00.00%
18487,58744.93%9,30155.07%00.00%
18445,60436.99%9,54663.01%00.00%
18405,16043.58%6,67956.42%00.00%
18361,33435.92%2,38064.08%00.00%

The State government of Arkansas is divided into three branches: executive, legislative and judicial. These consist of the state governor’s office, a bicameral state legislature known as the Arkansas General Assembly, and a state court system. The Arkansas Constitution delineates the structure and function of the state government. Since 1963, Arkansas has had four seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. Like all other states, it has two seats in the U.S. Senate.

The state was historically part of the Solid South, and was a one-party state dominated by Democrats. Arkansas was the only state in the nation not carried by Republicans at least once between 1876 and 1968, although it voted for segregationist George Wallace in 1968. It was the only Deep South state carried by Lyndon Johnson in 1964, just following the passage of the Civil Rights Act, however, Democratic support did weaken after this. The state voted Republican for the first time in 100 years in 1972, and became a swing state, voting for the national winner in every election from 1972 to 2004.[2] In 2008, the state continued in rightward turn in the 21st century, when Democrat Barack Obama became the first Democrat to win the presidency without carrying the state. Democrats lost the state legislature in 2012 and lost control of all statewide and congressional offices by 2014.

Reflecting the state’s large evangelical population, the state has a strong socially conservative bent. The 1874 Arkansas Constitution established Arkansas as a right to work state (a provision then directed against union organizers). In the early 21st century an initiative to restrict same-sex marriage passed by a 3:1 margin, although the United States Supreme Court overrode this in 2015 with its Obergefell v. Hodges decision.[3] [4] Abortion in Arkansas is illegal except when it is necessary to save the life of the mother.[5]

Political history

Democrats

Since the late 19th century, Southern Democrats of Arkansas have traditionally had an overwhelming majority of registered voters in the state. At that time, they consolidated their power and achieved effective disfranchisement of African Americans (and Republican) voters by passage of the Election Law of 1891 and a poll tax amendment in 1892, which also dropped many poor white Democrats from the rolls. Together these also suppressed the coalition of Republican and farmer-labor parties, which had threatened the Democrats. Assessing fees to register and vote resulted in many poor people being dropped from voter rolls. The Election Law set up secret ballots and standardized ballots in progressive reforms that also made voting more complicated and effectively closed out illiterate voters. It set up a state election board and officials, putting power into the hands of the Democratic Party, rather than county workers. Voter rolls declined for both black and white voters. By 1895, there were no longer any African-American representatives in the state house.[6] African Americans were closed out of the political system for decades and this continued after the advent of the Southern Strategy where Republicans became the more conservative party while the Democrats became less so as the parties essentially swapped positions over the civil rights movement as of 1954.

In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arkansas Democrats have tended to be more conservative than their national counterparts, particularly in areas outside metropolitan Little Rock. Traditionally having strength in most areas outside the Northwest and North Central parts of the state, in the 21st century Democrats in Arkansas predominate along the Mississippi River in the East, in central Little Rock, and around Pine Bluff and the areas south of there along the Louisiana border.

Republicans

Historically Republicans in the state were based in the northwestern areas, long a supporter of the Unionist cause in the Civil War. These were areas of yeomen farmers in the antebellum years. Planters and major slaveholders lived in the Delta area along the Mississippi River and tended to ally with the Democratic Party. As noted above, the disenfranchisement of African Americans and the consolidation of power by the Democrats left the Republicans nearly powerless. They concentrated on developing patronage positions.[7]

In 1966, Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt won a U.S. House seat from this northwestern area, the first Republican from Arkansas to be elected to Congress since after Reconstruction.[7] He held the seat until 1992, when he retired. What was more surprising, that year multi-millionaire Winthrop Rockefeller was elected to the governorship. A 1950s migrant from New York, he was joined by Republican Maurice “Footsie” Britt, a World War II hero elected as lieutenant governor. Unlike in other parts of the South at the time, Rockefeller’s coalition was based on “progressive Democrats and newly enfranchised black voters.” They also elected him in 1968. Rockefeller faced resistance from the conservative Democratic legislature. In 1970 the Democrats put up their own progressive candidate and defeated Rockefeller. Rockefeller died in 1973, which weakened the emerging Republican Party. It was 1978 before Ed Bethune was elected to Congress as the second Republican from the state; he served three terms from central Arkansas.[7]

It was not until the late 20th century that more white conservatives in Arkansas began to shift from the Democratic to the Republican Party. In 1989 Democratic Congressman Tommy Robinson announced his shift to the Republican Party, an indication of change.[7] The party continues to be strongest in the northwestern part of the state, due to historic conditions of that area, particularly in Fort Smith and Bentonville, as well as North Central Arkansas around the Mountain Home area. In the latter area, Republicans have been known to get 90 percent or more of the vote.

While the rest of the state used to be more Democratic, since the late 20th century Republicans have attracted members from the Little Rock suburbs, the southwest (especially Texarkana), and the northeast around Jonesboro. Tim Hutchinson, elected in 1996, was the first Republican U.S. Senator from Arkansas since Reconstruction. As an indication of increasing Republican strength in the state, in 2008, Republican nominee John McCain defeated Democratic nominee Barack Obama by 19.9%, the largest margin of victory for a candidate in Arkansas since 1984 despite McCain losing nationally.

History since 1992

Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton, a Democrat, was elected President of the United States candidate in 1992 and was reelected in 1996. In the former election, the state was the only one in the nation to give majority support to Clinton. However, the state has voted Republican by increasing margins in every presidential election since 1996, the longest such streak of any state in the nation, as of 2020.

Former First Lady of Arkansas and First Lady of the United States, Hillary Clinton, was elected a United States Senator for New York in 2000.[8]

The state voted for John McCain in 2008 by a margin of 20 percentage points, making it one of the few states in the country to vote more Republican that year than it had in 2004. (The others were Louisiana, Tennessee, Oklahoma, and West Virginia.)[9] Even while supporting Republican candidates for president, Arkansas voters continued to favor Democrats for statewide offices. In 2006, Democrats were elected to all statewide offices in a Democratic sweep that included regaining the governorship. However, in the 2010s, the Republican dominance at the presidential level spread to the local level. In 2012, they captured both chambers of the state legislature for the first time since Reconstruction. Republicans had won all statewide offices and all congressional seats in 2014, and won both Senate seats for the first time since Reconstruction. Republicans have consistently captured over 60% of the vote in statewide elections since 2012.

Local government

As in the national government of the United States, political power in Arkansas is divided into three main branches: Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. Each officer’s term is four years long. Office holders are term-limited to two full terms plus any partial terms before the first full term. Arkansas governors served two-year terms until a referendum lengthened the term to four years, effective with the 1986 general election. Statewide elections are held two years after presidential elections.

Some of Arkansas’s counties have two county seats, as opposed to the usual one seat. The arrangement dates back to when travel was extremely difficult in the state. The seats are usually on opposite sides of the county to serve residents within easier traveling distances. Although travel conditions have improved, there are few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement where it exists, since the county seat is a source of pride (and jobs) to the cities involved.

Arkansas is the only state to specify by law the pronunciation of its name (AR-kan-saw).[a]

Article 19 (Miscellaneous Provisions), Item 1 in the Arkansas Constitution is entitled “Atheists disqualified from holding office or testifying as witness,” and states that “No person who denies the being of a God shall hold any office in the civil departments of this State, nor be competent to testify as a witness in any Court.” In 1961, the United States Supreme Court in Torcaso v. Watkins (1961), held that a similar requirement in Maryland was unenforceable because it violated the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the US Constitution. The latter amendment, per current precedent, makes the federal Bill of Rights binding on the states. As a result, this ‘religious test’ provision has not been enforced in modern times. It would be overturned if challenged in court.

Executive branch

The daily administration of the state’s laws are carried out by the chief executive—the Governor, and their second in command the Lieutenant Governor, the Secretary of State, the Attorney General, the Commissioner of State Lands, the State Treasurer, the State Auditor, and by the staff and employees of the 15 executive branch departments.

Governor

The current Governor of Arkansas is Sarah Huckabee Sanders, a Republican, who was elected on November 8, 2022.[10][11][12] Arkansas also elects the lieutenant governor and several cabinet-level positions: secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor, and land commissioner.[13] The governor appoints qualified individuals to lead various state boards, committees, and departments.

In Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and can be from a different political party.[14]

Following reorganization in 2019, state government is subdivided into fifteen departments, each led by a cabinet-level official (titled secretary):

Legislative branch

Arkansas State Capitol building in Little Rock designed by architect George R. Mann

The Arkansas General Assembly is the state’s bicameral bodies of legislators, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives. Elections in the Arkansas Senate are staggered such that half the body is up for re-election every two years. Since the late 20th century, the Senate has 35 members from districts of approximately equal population. These districts are redrawn decennially with each US census. The entire state senate was up for reelection in 2012. Arkansas voters elected a 21-14 Republican majority in the Senate.

House districts are redistricted by the Arkansas Board of Apportionment. Following the 2012 elections, Republicans gained a 51-49 majority in the House of Representatives.[15]

Following the 2014 elections, an amendment to the Arkansas Constitution was approved that expanded legislative term limits to 16 years total in either the Senate and House of Representatives. Prior to this, senators were limited to two four-year terms and representatives were limited to three two-year terms.

The Republican Party majority status in the Arkansas State House of Representatives following the 2012 elections is the party’s first since 1874 during the Reconstruction era. Democrats regained control of the state house and suppressed black and Republican voters. At the turn of the century, the legislature passed a new constitution and laws disenfranchising most African Americans and establishing Jim Crow. African Americans were closed out of the political system for many decades. It was 2012 before the Republican Party re-established control of the state legislature.[16]

Composition of the Arkansas legislature

Arkansas’s legislature is controlled by the Republican Party, which gained the majority in both houses following the 2012 general election.

Arkansas House of Representatives

Arkansas State House, party breakdown 2012
AffiliationMembers
Republican76
Democratic24
Seat Vacant0
 Total100

Arkansas Senate

Arkansas State Senate, party breakdown 2012
AffiliationMembers
Republicans26
Democrats9
Seat Vacant0
Total35

Judiciary

Arkansas’s judicial branch has five court systems: Arkansas Supreme Court, Arkansas Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts, District Courts and City Courts.

Most cases begin in district court, which is subdivided into state district court and local district court. State district courts exercise district-wide jurisdiction over the districts created by the General Assembly. Local district courts are presided over by part-time judges who may also privately practice law. Twenty-five state district court judges preside over 15 districts. The legislature has committed to establishing more districts in 2017 to accommodate growth in population.

There are 28 judicial circuits of Circuit Court, with each containing five subdivisions: criminal, civil, probate, domestic relations, and juvenile court. The jurisdiction of the Arkansas Court of Appeals is determined by the Arkansas Supreme Court. There is no right of appeal from the Court of Appeals to the high court. However, the Arkansas Supreme Court can review Court of Appeals cases upon application by either a party to the litigation, upon request by the Court of Appeals, or if the Arkansas Supreme Court believes the case should have been assigned to it. The twelve judges of the Arkansas Court of Appeals are elected from judicial districts to renewable six-year terms.

The Arkansas Supreme Court was established in 1836 by the Arkansas Constitution as the court of last resort in the state. It is composed of seven justices elected to eight-year terms. The court’s decisions can be appealed only to the Supreme Court of the United States.

Federal representation

U.S. Senate

Arkansas’s two U.S. senators are elected at large:

U.S. House of Representatives

Map of Arkansas showing all four congressional districts

Arkansas has four congressional districts. There were 5th, 6th, 7th, and at-large districts, but they were eliminated in 1963, 1963, 1953, and 1885, respectively in the U.S. House of Representatives:

Arkansas remains the only former Confederate state that has never sent a Black representative to the U.S. House.[17]

Judiciary

Arkansas is part of the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas and the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas in the federal judiciary. The district’s cases are appealed to the St. Louis-based United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.

Notes

  1. ^ The name Arkansas has been pronounced and spelled in a variety of fashions. The region was organized as the Territory of Arkansaw on July 4, 1819, but the territory was admitted to the United States as the state of Arkansas on June 15, 1836. The name was historically /ˈɑːrkənsɔː/, /ɑːrˈkænzəs/, and several other variants. The people of Arkansas call themselves either “Arkansans” or “Arkansawyers”. In 1881, the Arkansas General Assembly passed the following concurrent resolution, now Arkansas Code 1-4-105 (official text Archived 2011-09-24 at the Wayback Machine):

    Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.

    And, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.

    Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final “s” silent, the “a” in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of “a” in “man” and the sounding of the terminal “s” is an innovation to be discouraged.

    Residents of the state of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River as /ɑːrˈkænzəs ˈrɪvər/, in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.

References

  1. ^ Leip, David. “Presidential General Election Results Comparison – Arkansas”. US Election Atlas. Retrieved January 1, 2023.
  2. ^ “Arkansas Presidential Election Voting History – 270toWin”.
  3. ^ “HB1004”. arkleg.state.ar.us. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
  4. ^ “The Latest: Arkansas counties begin to issue same-sex marriage licenses”. 4029 TV. June 26, 2015. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
  5. ^ Blumenthal, Paul (2022-06-14). “These States Will Ban Abortion Now That Roe Is Overturned”. HuffPost. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
  6. ^ Branam, Chris M. (2010). “Another Look at Disfranchisement in Arkansas, 1888—1894”. The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 69 (3): 245–262. JSTOR 23046114.
  7. ^ a b c d Jay Barth, “Republican Party”, Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture, 2014
  8. ^ “Hillary Clinton’s startling decision to run for Senate set her on a path no woman has walked | The Washington Post”. The Washington Post.
  9. ^ See image.
  10. ^ “Winners in ’06 Governors races” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 28, 2011. Retrieved July 30, 2010.
  11. ^ “Arkansas.gov Administration page for Governor”. Dwe.arkansas.gov. March 16, 2007. Archived from the original on June 14, 2006. Retrieved July 30, 2010.
  12. ^ “Governor Terms and Term Limits” (PDF). Snelling Center for Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 7, 2009. Retrieved January 6, 2013.
  13. ^ Arkansas Code 7-5-806.
  14. ^ “Office of Lieutenant Governor”. Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. The Pryor Center. February 28, 2011. Retrieved January 6, 2013.
  15. ^ Cooke, Mallory (14 November 2012). “Republicans Take Control of Arkansas House, Senate”. KFSM-TV. Retrieved January 8, 2013.
  16. ^ “Arkansas Senate flips; first time since Reconstruction”. The Courier. November 7, 2012. Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved January 8, 2013.
  17. ^ De Millo, Andrew (October 7, 2021). “Arkansas redistrict plan splitting Pulaski County advances”. Associated Press. Retrieved December 6, 2022.

Further reading

  • Barnes, Kenneth C. Who Killed John Clayton? Political Violence and the Emergence of the New South, 1861–1893. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998.
  • Graves, John William. Town and Country: Race Relations in an Urban-Rural Context, Arkansas 1865–1905. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1990.
  • Kousser, J. Morgan. The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880–1910. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
  • Ogden, Frederic D. The Poll Tax in the South. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1958.
  • Perman, Michael. Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.
  • Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South, 1877–1913. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951.

See also